هندبوک توربین گاز: اصول و کاربرد

هندبوک توربین گاز: اصول و کاربرد هندبوک توربین گاز اصول و کاربرد

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هندبوک توربین گاز: اصول و کاربرد

زبان اصلی

Gas Turbine Handbook:
Principles and Practice

Contents
PREFACE ...............................................................................................xi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .....................................................................xiii
Chapter 1—THE GAS TURBINE EVOLUTION ................................ 1
History ................................................................................... 1
Technical Improvements ....................................................... 7
Chapter 2—APPLICATIONS.............................................................. 11
Jet Engines .................................................................................. 11
Mechanical Drive ......................................................................... 15
Chapter 3—HARDWARE.................................................................... 23
Similarities and Differences ....................................................... 23
Compressors ................................................................................ 27
Turbines ....................................................................................... 27
Combustors .................................................................................. 35
Bearing Design ............................................................................ 39
Chapter 4—GAS TURBINE SYSTEMS THEORY ............................ 45
Gas Turbine Operating Cycle ..................................................... 45
Component Efficiencies ............................................................... 49
Compressor .................................................................................. 52
Burner Section ............................................................................. 72
Turbine ......................................................................................... 72
Chapter 5—GAS TURBINE CONTROLS .......................................... 79
Gas Turbine Controls .................................................................. 79
Chapter 6—ACCESSORIES (Lube Oil, Coolers, Power)................... 93
Starting Systems ......................................................................... 93
Ignition Systems .......................................................................... 98
Lubrication Systems ................................................................. 102
Characteristics of Lube Oils ..................................................... 108
Chapter 7—PARAMETER CHARACTERISTICS ........................... 113
Vibration .................................................................................... 113
viii
Vibration Measurement ............................................................ 115
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) ............................................ 117
Rotor Speed ................................................................................ 117
Oil Pressure & Temperature .................................................... 119
Chapter 8—GAS TURBINE INLET TREATMENT ........................ 123
The Environment ...................................................................... 123
Inlet Air Filters ......................................................................... 125
Filter and Gas Turbine Match .................................................. 130
Inlet Air Cooling ........................................................................ 130
Wet Compression ....................................................................... 136
Chillers ....................................................................................... 139
Chapter 9—GAS TURBINE EXHAUST TREATMENT.................. 141
Water or Steam Injection .......................................................... 146
Water Injection .......................................................................... 147
Steam Injection .......................................................................... 148
Selective Catalytic Reduction ................................................... 149
Chapter 10—GAS TURBINE ACOUSTICS
AND NOISE CONTROL ........................................................... 155
Combustion Turbines—Lots of Power in a Little Space ......... 155
Some Fundamentals of Acoustic ............................................... 158
Noise Criterion .......................................................................... 164
Noise Control ............................................................................. 165
Chapter 11—MICROTURBINES................................................................. 179
Microturbines ....................................................................................... 179
Applications ......................................................................................... 180
Hardware .............................................................................................. 182
Chapter 12—DETECTABLE PROBLEMS .................................................. 193
Gas Path Analysis ..................................................................... 194
Turbine Blade Distress ............................................................. 197
Compressor Fouling .................................................................. 205
Combustor Distress & Plugged Fuel Nozzles .......................... 209
Foreign/Domestic Object Damage ............................................ 209
ix
Worn Air/Oil Seals .................................................................... 211
Fuel Control Problems .............................................................. 212
Chapter 13—BOROSCOPE INSPECTION...................................... 215
Objectives & Expectations ........................................................ 215
A Back-up to Confirming Suspected Problems ........................ 218
Assessing Damage to the Compressor,
Combustor, and Turbine ........................................................... 219
Chapter 14—CASE HISTORY 1 ....................................................... 239
Chapter 15—CASE HISTORY 2 ....................................................... 259
Chapter 16—CASE HISTORY 3 ....................................................... 271
Chapter 17—CASE HISTORY 4 ....................................................... 279
Chapter 18—THE GAS TURBINE’S FUTURE ............................... 289
Appendix A
1. Gas Turbine Manufacturers
(Names, Addresses, Phone Numbers) ............................................ 297
2. Microturbines Manufacturers .......................................................... 314
Appendix B
1. Accessory Manufacturers
(Names, Addresses, Phone Numbers) ............................................ 315
Appendix C
1. Stanford Research Institute Chart .................................................... 335
2. PWA Material Chart ........................................................................... 338
3. Formulas (Interrelationship of Engine Parameters) ...................... 356
4. Hazardous Area Classification ......................................................... 364
5. Air Filter Selection Guideline Checklist ......................................... 365
6. Air/Oil Cooler Selection Guideline Checklist ............................... 368
7. Gaseous Fuel Properties .................................................................... 373
8. Liquid Fuel Properties ....................................................................... 380
9. List of Symbols ................................................................................... 382
x
10. Conversion Factors ............................................................................ 375
11. Inlet Water Cooling (Fogging) .......................................................... 380
12. Overall A-weighted Sound Level Calculation ............................... 383
13. Occupational Noise Exposure .................................................. 385
14. Elden F. Ray, Jr., P.E. Resume ................................................387
15. Microturbine and Power Converter Manufacturers ..................... 389
Appendix D
1. Technical Societies .............................................................................. 401
2. Technical Articles ............................................................................... 406
Index ............................................................................................................... 437

هندبوک توربین های گازی

هندبوک توربین های گازی هندبوک توربین های گازی

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Gas Turbine Handbook

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii ForeWord to the First Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv. Part I Design: Theory and Practice 1. An Overview of Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode. Gas Turbine Performance. Gas Turbine Design Considerations. Categories of Gas Turbines. Major Gas Turbine Components. Fuel Type. Environmental Effects. Turbine Expander Section. Materials. Coatings. Gas Turbine Heat Recovery. Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems. Bibliography.

2 Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

The Brayton Cycle. Actual Cycle Analysis. Summation of Cycle Analysis. A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants. Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle. Power Augmentation. Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems. Bibliography.

3 Compressor and Turbine Performance Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . 112

Turbomachine Aerothermodynamics. The Aerothermal Equations. Efficiencies. Dimensional Analysis. Compressor Performance Characteristics. Turbine Performance Characteristics. Gas Turbine Performance Computation. Bibliography.

4 Performance and Mechanical Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Major Variables for a Gas Turbine Application. Performance Standards. Mechanical Parameters. Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine. Specifications. Bibliography.

5 Rotor Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Mathematical Analysis. Application to Rotating Machines. Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems. Electromechanical Systems and Analogies. Campbell Diagram. Bibliography.

Part II Major Components

6 Centrifugal Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

Centrifugal Compressor Components. Centrifugal Compressor Performance. Compressor Surge. Process Centrifugal Compressors. Bibliography.

7 Axial-Flow Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275

Blade and Cascade Nomenclature. Elementary Airfoil Theory. Laminar-Flow Airfoils, Cascade Test. Velocity Triangles. Degree of Reaction. Radial Equilibrium. Diffusion Factor. The Incidence Rule. The Deviation Rule. Compressor Stall. Performance Characteristics of an Axial-Flow Compressor. Stall Analysis of an Axial-Flow Compressor. Bibliography.

8 Radial-Inflow Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319

Description. Theory. Turbine Design Considerations. Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine. Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine. Bibliography.

wii

Viii Contents

9 Axial-Flow Turbines . . . . . .337

Turbine Geometry. Impulse Turbine. The Reaction Turbine. Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts. Turbine Blade Cooling Design. Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics, Turbine Losses. Bibliography.

10 Combustors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Combustion Terms. Combustion. Combustion Chamber Design. Fuel Atomization and Ignition. Typical Combustor Arrangements. Air Pollution Problems. Catalytic Combustion. Bibliography.

Part Ill Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems

11 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

General Metallurgical Behaviors in Gas Turbines. Gas Turbine Materials. Compressor Blades. Forgings and Nondestructive Testing. Coatings. Bibliography.

12 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436

Fuel Specifications. Fuel Properties. Fuel Treatment. Heavy Fuels. Cleaning of Turbine Components. Fuel Economics. Operating Experience. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems. Types of Heat-Tracing Systems. Storage of Liquids. Bibliography.

Part IV Auxiliary Components and Accessories

13 Bearings and Seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Bearings. Bearing Design Principles. Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings. Bearing Materials. Bearing and Shaft Instabilities. Thrust Bearings. Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design. ThrustBearing Power Loss. Seals. Noncontacting Seals. Mechanical (Face) Seals. Mechanical Seal Selection and Application. Seal Systems. Associated Oil System. Dry Gas Seals. Bibliography. 14 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Gear Types. Factors Affecting Gear Design. Manufacturing Processes. Installation and Initial Operation. Bibliography.

Part V Installation, Operation, and Maintenance

| 15 Lubrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Basic Oil System. Lubricant Selection. Oil Sampling and Testing. Oil Contamination. Filter Selection. Cleaning and Flushing. Coupling Lubrication. Lubrication Management Program. Bibliography.

16 Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

Vibration Measurement. Taping Data. Interpretation of Vibration Spectra. Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis. Using RTA. Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra. Bibliography. 17 Balancing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Rotor Imbalance. Balancing Procedures. Application of Balancing Techniques. User's Guide for Multiplane Balancing. Bibliography.

18 Couplings and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605

Gear Couplings. Metal Diaphragm Couplings. Metal Disc Couplings. Turbomachinery Uprates. Shaft Alignment. Bibliography.

Contents ix

19 Control Systems and instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634

Control Systems, Condition Monitoring Systems. Monitoring Software. Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System. Life Cycle Costs. Temperature Measurement. Pressure Measurement. Vibration Measurement. Auxiliary System Monitoring. The Gas Turbine. Failure Diagnostics. Mechanical Problem Diagnostics, Summary. Bibliography.

20 Gas Turbine Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692

Introduction. Performance Codes. Flow Straighteners. Gas Turbine Test. Gas Turbine. Performance Curves. Performance Computations. Gas Turbine Performance Calculations. Plant Losses. Bibliography.

21 Maintenance Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722

Philosophy of Maintenance. Training of Personnel. Tools and Shop Equipment. Turbomachinery Cleaning. Hot-Section Maintenance. Compressor Maintenance. Bearing Maintenance. Coupling Maintenance. Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades. Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations. Large Machinery Startup Procedure. Typical Problems Encountered in Gas Turbines. Bibliography.

Appendix: Equivalent Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799

پاورپوینت آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ

پاورپوینت آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ دانلود پاورپوینت آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ بررسی آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ پاورپوینت جامع و کامل آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ کاملترین پاورپوینت آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ پکیج پاورپوینت آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ مقاله آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ تحقیق آشنایی با مسابقات روبوکاپ

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نوع فایل: پاورپوینت (قابل ویرایش)

 قسمتی از متن پاورپوینت :

تعداد اسلاید : 31 صفحه

1 سرفصل مطالب
روبوکاپ چیست؟
تاریخچه مسابقات روبوکاپ
اهداف مسابقات روبوکاپ
سازمان روبوکاپ
آشنایی بالیگ های مختلف روبوکاپ
2 RoboCup ( Robot World Cup)
عنوان مسابقاتی بین المللی در زمینه دانش روباتیک و هوش مصنوعی است.
مجموعه‌ای از مسابقات و کنفرانس‌ها، محیطی پژوهشی و آموزشی و ورزشی است.
ربوکاپ محلی است برای آزمون یک تیم از ربات‌های هوشمند پرسرعت در محیطی پویا.

هدف اولیه:
ایجاد تیمی از روبات‌های فوتبالیست


فعالیت‌های فعلی:
کنفرانس‌های تخصصی
کنفرانس و مسابقات جهانی روبوکاپ
برنامه‌های تحصیلی
توسعه زیرساخت‌ها
مجموعه مسابقات روبوکاپ روبوکاپ چیست؟ 3 تاریخچه مسابقات روبوکاپ
ایدهء رباتهای فوتبالیست در سال 1992 توسط پروفسورAlan Mackworth استاد دانشگاه British Columbia مطرح شد .

محققان ژاپنی به صورت مستقل توسعه فوتبال ربات ها و سیستم شبیه سازی را بررسی کردند.

در سال 1997نقطه ی عطفی در تاریخ هوش مصنوعی و رباتیک رخ داد.

4 اهداف مسابقات روبوکاپ اهداف
سرعت بخشیدن تحقیقات : وسیله‌ای برای سرعت بخشیدن تحقیقات در زمینه هوش مصنوعی و روباتیک با ارائه مسائلی جذاب و مشکل.

هدف نمادین : مشکل اما دست‌یافتنی

پروژه برجسته:
نمونه: پروژه آپولو
جان اف کندی در 1961: فرود یک انسان در ماه و بازگشت آن به سلامت به زمین
جنبه اقتصادی و یا نظامی مستقیم در کار نیست.
"قدم کوچکی برای یک انسان و قدم بزرگی برای بشریت" 5 سازمان روبوکاپ فدراسیون روبوکاپ
مسئول برگزاری مسابقات رسمی و سالیانه روبوکاپ
سازمانی بین المللی که در سوئیس ثبت شده است.
دارای ریئس، هیت ریئسه و هیئت اجرایی می باشد.
ریس فعلی : Minoru Asada از دانشگاه اساکا ژاپن
هیئت اجرایی شامل هیئت ریئسه و نمایندگان هر لیگ می باشد.
کمیته های ملی
اسکاندیناوی
آمریکا
فرانسه
ایتالیا
آلمان
سنگاپور
ژاپن
هلند 6 آشنایی با لیگ های مختلف روبوکاپ 7 لیگ های رباتها- آشنایی کلی :خصوصیات کلی
ربات●
زمین ●
قوانین بازی ● نوع مسابقه:
فوتبال ●
امداد ● 8 لیگ ربات های اندازه کوچک – محیط بازی زمین
اندازه زمین میز تنیس می باشد.
152.5 * 274 cm
سطح زمین کاملا صاف است.
تیم ها باید مشکلات ناهمواری های جزئی را برطرف کنند.

دروازه
عرض دروازه 50 سانتی متر است.

توپ
توپ نارنجی رنگ گلف مورد استفاده قرار می گیرد.

دیوار
دیوار در اطراف زمین هستند و دارای ده سانتیمتر ارتفاع است و رنگ آنها سفید میباشد.
9 محدوده دفاعی
فاصله از خط دروازه 22.5 است و دارای عرض 100 سانتیمتر است.
فقط یک ربات از هر تیم در این منطقه میباشد.

نور
مقدار نور بین 700-1000 Lux میباشد

گوشه ها
صفحه ای در گوشه ها برای ممانعت از گیر کردن توپ قرار دارد.

رنگ ها
زمین سبز تیره است.
دیوارها سفید است.
منطقه پشت دروازه آبی یا سفید تیره میباشد.
خطوط سفید هستند.

لیگ ربات های اندازه کوچک – محیط بازی 10 ربات و تیم
حداکثر مساحت 180 سانتی متر است.
حداکثر طول 18 سانتی متر است.
ارتفاع در صورت وجود سیستم سرتاسری بینایی، 15 سانتی متر میباشد و در غیر این صورت 5/22 سانتیمتر است.

تیم
هر تیم شامل پنج ربات است.

سیستم سرتاسری بینایی
شناسایی و دنبال کردن جای توپ و ربات ها لیگ ربات های اندازه کوچک – ربات و تیم 11 لیگ ربات های اندازه کوچک – قوانین بازی زمان بازی
هر بازی شامل دو نیمه و یک استراحت بین آنها است.
زمان نیمه ها و استراحت ده دقیقه می باشد.
نگهداری توپ
توپ را نباید کاملا در کنترل خود قرار دهد.
Robot Halting
همه بازیکنان قبل از شروع بازی (restart) باید در حالت halt قرار گیرند. داور پنج ثانیه قبل از شروع مجدد همه ربات ها را قرار می دهد و در طول این زمان بازیکنان نباید حرکت کنند.
رباتها نباید به رباتهای دیگر حمله کنند.

---

توجه: متن بالا فقط قسمت کوچکی از محتوای فایل پاورپوینت بوده و بدون ظاهر گرافیکی می باشد و پس از دانلود، فایل کامل آنرا با تمامی اسلایدهای آن دریافت می کنید.

هندبوک پمپ کاراسیک

هندبوک پمپ کاراسیک هندبوک ارزشمند پمپ کاراسیک شامل

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Chapter 1 Introduction: Classification and Selection of Pumps 1.1
Chapter 2 Centrifugal Pumps 2.1
2.1 Centrifugal Pump Theory / 2.3
2.2 Centrifugal Pump Construction / 2.97
2.2.1 Centrifugal Pumps: Major Components / 2.97
2.2.2 Centrifugal Pump Packing / 2.183
2.2.3 Centrifugal Pump Mechanical Seals / 2.197
2.2.4 Centrifugal Pump Injection-Type Shaft Seals / 2.239
2.2.5 Centrifugal Pump Oil Film Journal Bearings / 2.247
CONTENTS
2.2.6 Centrifugal Pump Magnetic Bearings / 2.277
2.2.7 Sealless Pumps / 2.295
2.2.7.1 Magnetic Drive Pumps / 2.297
2.2.7.2 Canned Motor Pumps / 2.315
2.3 Centrifugal Pump Performance / 2.327
2.3.1 Centrifugal Pumps: General Performance Characteristics / 2.327
2.3.2 Centrifugal Pump Hydraulic Performance and Diagnostics / 2.397
2.3.3 Centrifugal Pump Mechanical Performance, Instrumentation,
and Diagnostics / 2.405
2.3.4 Centrifugal Pump Minimum Flow Control Systems / 2.437
2.4 Centrifugal Pump Priming / 2.453
Chapter 3 Displacement Pumps 3.1
3.1 Power Pump Theory / 3.3
3.2 Power Pump Design and Construction / 3.21
3.3 Steam Pumps / 3.37
3.4 Displacement Pump Performance Instrumentation and Diagnostics / 3.63
3.5 Displacement Pump Flow Control / 3.75
3.6 Diaphragm Pumps / 3.85
3.7 Screw Pumps / 3.99
3.8 Vane, Gear, and Lobe Pumps / 3.123
Chapter 4 Jet Pumps 4.1
4.1 Jet Pump Theory / 4.3
4.2 Jet Pump Applications / 4.23
Chapter 5 Materials of Construction 5.1
5.1 Metallic Materials of Pump Construction (and Their Damage
Mechanisms) / 5.3
5.2 Materials of Construction for Nonmetallic (Composite) Pumps / 5.49
Chapter 6 Pump Drivers 6.1
6.1 Prime Movers / 6.3
6.1.1 Electric Motors and Motor Controls / 6.3
6.1.2 Steam Turbines / 6.37
6.1.3 Engines / 6.57
6.1.4 Hydraulic Turbines / 6.77
6.1.5 Gas Turbines / 6.89
6.2 Speed-Varying Devices / 6.99
6.2.1 Eddy-Current Couplings / 6.99
vi CONTENTS
6.2.2 Single-Unit Adjustable-Speed Electric Drives / 6.109
6.2.3 Fluid Couplings / 6.127
6.2.4 Gears / 6.143
6.2.5 Adjustable-Speed Belt Drives / 6.167
6.3 Power Transmission Devices / 6.175
6.3.1 Pump Couplings and Intermediate Shafting / 6.175
6.3.2 Hydraulic Pump and Motor Power Transmission Systems / 6.191
Chapter 7 Pump Controls and Valves 7.1
Chapter 8 Pump Systems 8.1
8.1 General Characteristics of Pumping Systems and System-Head Curves / 8.3
8.2 Branch-Line Pumping Systems / 8.83
8.3 Waterhammer / 8.91
8.4 Pump Noise / 8.109
Chapter 9 Pump Services 9.1
9.1 Water Supply / 9.3
9.2 Sewage Treatment / 9.25
9.3 Drainage and Irrigation / 9.45
9.4 Fire Pumps / 9.57
9.5 Steam Power Plants / 9.73
9.6 Chemical Industry / 9.113
9.7 Petroleum Industry / 9.133
9.8 Pulp and Paper Mills / 9.157
9.9 Food and Beverage Pumping / 9.187
9.10 Mining / 9.197
9.11 Marine Pumps / 9.215
9.12 Refrigeration, Heating, and Air Conditioning / 9.253
9.13 Pumped Storage / 9.261
9.14 Nuclear / 9.279
9.14.1 Nuclear Electric Generation / 9.279
9.14.2 Nuclear Pump Seismic Qualifications / 9.301
9.15 Metering / 9.313
9.16 Solids Pumping / 9.321
9.16.1 Hydraulic Transport of Solids / 9.321
9.16.2 Application and Construction of Centrifugal Solids Handling
Pumps / 9.351
9.16.3 Construction of Solids-Handling Displacement Pumps / 9.369
9.17 Oil Wells / 9.377
9.18 Cryogenic Liquefied Gas Service / 9.399
CONTENTS vii
9.19 Aerospace / 9.409
9.19.1 Aircraft Fuel Pumps / 9.409
9.19.2 Liquid Rocket Propellant Pumps / 9.431
9.20 Portable Transfer of Hazardous Liquids / 9.441
9.21 Water Pressure Booster Systems / 9.447
9.22 Hydraulic Presses / 9.463
Chapter 10 Intakes and Suction Piping 10.1
10.1 Intakes, Suction Piping, and Strainers / 10.3
10.2 Intake Modeling / 10.39
Chapter 11 Selecting and Purchasing Pumps 11.1
Chapter 12 Installation, Operation, and Maintenance 12.1
Chapter 13 Pump Testing 13.1
Appendix Technical Data A.1
Index

هندبوک طراحی فرآیندهای شیمیایی

هندبوک طراحی فرآیندهای شیمیایی هندبوک طراحی فرآیندهای شیمیایی

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Preface xiii

Acknowledgements xv

Nomenclature xvii

Chapter 1 The Nature of Chemical Process

Design and Integration 1

1.1 Chemical Products 1

1.2 Formulation of the Design Problem 3

1.3 Chemical Process Design and

Integration 4

1.4 The Hierarchy of Chemical Process

Design and Integration 5

1.5 Continuous and Batch Processes 9

1.6 New Design and Retrofit 10

1.7 Approaches to Chemical Process

Design and Integration 11

1.8 Process Control 13

1.9 The Nature of Chemical Process

Design and Integration – Summary 14

References 14

Chapter 2 Process Economics 17

2.1 The Role of Process Economics 17

2.2 Capital Cost for New Design 17

2.3 Capital Cost for Retrofit 23

2.4 Annualized Capital Cost 24

2.5 Operating Cost 25

2.6 Simple Economic Criteria 28

2.7 Project Cash Flow and Economic

Evaluation 29

2.8 Investment Criteria 30

2.9 Process Economics – Summary 31

2.10 Exercises 32

References 33

Chapter 3 Optimization 35

3.1 Objective Functions 35

3.2 Single-variable Optimization 37

3.3 Multivariable Optimization 38

3.4 Constrained Optimization 42

3.5 Linear Programming 43

3.6 Nonlinear Programming 45

3.7 Profile Optimization 46

3.8 Structural Optimization 48

3.9 Solution of Equations

using Optimization 52

3.10 The Search for Global

Optimality 53

3.11 Summary – Optimization 54

3.12 Exercises 54

References 56

Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Properties and

Phase Equilibrium 57

4.1 Equations of State 57

4.2 Phase Equilibrium for Single

Components 59

4.3 Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium 60

4.4 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 60

4.5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on

Activity Coefficient Models 62

4.6 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on

Equations of State 64

4.7 Calculation of Vapor–Liquid

Equilibrium 64

4.8 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium 70

4.9 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity

Coefficient Models 71

4.10 Calculation of Liquid–Liquid

Equilibrium 71

4.11 Calculation of Enthalpy 72

4.12 Calculation of Entropy 74

4.13 Phase Equilibrium and Thermodynamic

Properties – Summary 74

4.14 Exercises 74

References 76

Chapter 5 Choice of Reactor I – Reactor

Performance 77

5.1 Reaction Path 77

5.2 Types of Reaction Systems 78

5.3 Reactor Performance 81

5.4 Rate of Reaction 82

5.5 Idealized Reactor Models 83

5.6 Choice of Idealized Reactor Model 90

5.7 Choice of Reactor Performance 94

viii Contents

5.8 Choice of Reactor

Performance – Summary 94

5.9 Exercises 95

References 96

Chapter 6 Choice of Reactor II - Reactor

Conditions 97

6.1 Reaction Equilibrium 97

6.2 Reactor Temperature 100

6.3 Reactor Pressure 107

6.4 Reactor Phase 108

6.5 Reactor Concentration 109

6.6 Biochemical Reactions 114

6.7 Catalysts 114

6.8 Choice of Reactor

Conditions – Summary 117

6.9 Exercises 118

References 120

Chapter 7 Choice of Reactor III – Reactor

Configuration 121

7.1 Temperature Control 121

7.2 Catalyst Degradation 123

7.3 Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid

Reactors 124

7.4 Reactor Configuration 127

7.5 Reactor Configuration for

Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed

Reactions 133

7.6 Reactor Configuration from

Optimization of a Superstructure 133

7.7 Choice of Reactor

Configuration – Summary 139

7.8 Exercises 139

References 140

Chapter 8 Choice of Separator for

Heterogeneous Mixtures 143

8.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous

Separation 143

8.2 Settling and Sedimentation 143

8.3 Inertial and Centrifugal Separation 147

8.4 Electrostatic Precipitation 149

8.5 Filtration 150

8.6 Scrubbing 151

8.7 Flotation 152

8.8 Drying 153

8.9 Separation of Heterogeneous

Mixtures – Summary 154

8.10 Exercises 154

References 155

Chapter 9 Choice of Separator for

Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures

I – Distillation 157

9.1 Single-Stage Separation 157

9.2 Distillation 157

9.3 Binary Distillation 160

9.4 Total and Minimum Reflux

Conditions for Multicomponent

Mixtures 163

9.5 Finite Reflux Conditions for

Multicomponent Mixtures 170

9.6 Choice of Operating Conditions 175

9.7 Limitations of Distillation 176

9.8 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid

Mixtures by Distillation – Summary 177

9.9 Exercises 178

References 179

Chapter 10 Choice of Separator for

Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures

II – Other Methods 181

10.1 Absorption and Stripping 181

10.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 184

10.3 Adsorption 189

10.4 Membranes 193

10.5 Crystallization 203

10.6 Evaporation 206

10.7 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid

Mixtures by Other

Methods – Summary 208

10.8 Exercises 209

References 209

Chapter 11 Distillation Sequencing 211

11.1 Distillation Sequencing Using

Simple Columns 211

11.2 Practical Constraints Restricting

Options 211

11.3 Choice of Sequence for Simple

Nonintegrated Distillation Columns 212

11.4 Distillation Sequencing Using

Columns With More Than Two

Products 217

11.5 Distillation Sequencing Using

Thermal Coupling 220

11.6 Retrofit of Distillation Sequences 224

11.7 Crude Oil Distillation 225

11.8 Distillation Sequencing Using

Optimization of a Superstructure 228

11.9 Distillation Sequencing – Summary 230

11.10 Exercises 231

References 232

Contents ix

Chapter 12 Distillation Sequencing for

Azeotropic Distillation 235

12.1 Azeotropic Systems 235

12.2 Change in Pressure 235

12.3 Representation of Azeotropic

Distillation 236

12.4 Distillation at Total Reflux

Conditions 238

12.5 Distillation at Minimum Reflux

Conditions 242

12.6 Distillation at Finite Reflux

Conditions 243

12.7 Distillation Sequencing Using an

Entrainer 246

12.8 Heterogeneous Azeotropic

Distillation 251

12.9 Entrainer Selection 253

12.10 Trade-offs in Azeotropic Distillation 255

12.11 Multicomponent Systems 255

12.12 Membrane Separation 255

12.13 Distillation Sequencing for

Azeotropic Distillation – Summary 256

12.14 Exercises 257

References 258

Chapter 13 Reaction, Separation and Recycle

Systems for Continuous Processes 259

13.1 The Function of Process Recycles 259

13.2 Recycles with Purges 264

13.3 Pumping and Compression 267

13.4 Simulation of Recycles 276

13.5 The Process Yield 280

13.6 Optimization of Reactor Conversion 281

13.7 Optimization of Processes Involving

a Purge 283

13.8 Hybrid Reaction and Separation 284

13.9 Feed, Product and Intermediate

Storage 286

13.10 Reaction, Separation and Recycle

Systems for Continuous

Processes – Summary 288

13.11 Exercises 289

References 290

Chapter 14 Reaction, Separation and Recycle

Systems for Batch Processes 291

14.1 Batch Processes 291

14.2 Batch Reactors 291

14.3 Batch Separation Processes 297

14.4 Gantt Charts 303

14.5 Production Schedules for Single

Products 304

14.6 Production Schedules for Multiple

Products 305

14.7 Equipment Cleaning and Material

Transfer 306

14.8 Synthesis of Reaction and

Separation Systems for Batch

Processes 307

14.9 Optimization of Batch Processes 311

14.10 Storage in Batch Processes 312

14.11 Reaction and Separation Systems for

Batch Processes – Summary 313

14.12 Exercises 313

References 315

Chapter 15 Heat Exchanger Networks

I – Heat Transfer Equipment 317

15.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 317

15.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients and

Pressure Drops for Shell-and-Tube

Heat Exchangers 319

15.3 Temperature Differences in

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 324

15.4 Allocation of Fluids in

Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 329

15.5 Extended Surface Tubes 332

15.6 Retrofit of Heat Exchangers 333

15.7 Condensers 337

15.8 Reboilers and Vaporizers 342

15.9 Other Types of Heat Exchange

Equipment 346

15.10 Fired Heaters 348

15.11 Heat Transfer

Equipment – Summary 354

15.12 Exercises 354

References 356

Chapter 16 Heat Exchanger Networks

II – Energy Targets 357

16.1 Composite Curves 357

16.2 The Heat Recovery Pinch 361

16.3 Threshold Problems 364

16.4 The Problem Table Algorithm 365

16.5 Nonglobal Minimum Temperature

Differences 370

16.6 Process Constraints 370

16.7 Utility Selection 372

16.8 Furnaces 374

16.9 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and

Power Generation) 376

16.10 Integration Of Heat Pumps 381

16.11 Heat Exchanger Network Energy

Targets – Summary 383

x Contents

16.12 Exercises 383

References 385

Chapter 17 Heat Exchanger Networks

III – Capital and Total Cost

Targets 387

17.1 Number of Heat Exchange Units 387

17.2 Heat Exchange Area Targets 388

17.3 Number-of-shells Target 392

17.4 Capital Cost Targets 393

17.5 Total Cost Targets 395

17.6 Heat Exchanger Network and

Utilities Capital and Total

Costs – Summary 395

17.7 Exercises 396

References 397

Chapter 18 Heat Exchanger Networks

IV – Network Design 399

18.1 The Pinch Design Method 399

18.2 Design for Threshold Problems 404

18.3 Stream Splitting 405

18.4 Design for Multiple Pinches 408

18.5 Remaining Problem Analysis 411

18.6 Network Optimization 413

18.7 The Superstructure Approach to

Heat Exchanger Network Design 416

18.8 Retrofit of Heat Exchanger

Networks 419

18.9 Addition of New Heat Transfer Area

in Retrofit 424

18.10 Heat Exchanger Network

Design – Summary 425

18.11 Exercises 425

References 428

Chapter 19 Heat Exchanger Networks

V – Stream Data 429

19.1 Process Changes for Heat

Integration 429

19.2 The Trade-Offs Between Process

Changes, Utility Selection, Energy

Cost and Capital Cost 429

19.3 Data Extraction 430

19.4 Heat Exchanger Network Stream

Data – Summary 437

19.5 Exercises 437

References 438

Chapter 20 Heat Integration of Reactors 439

20.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics

of Reactors 439

20.2 Appropriate Placement of Reactors 441

20.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve

for Heat Integration of Reactors 442

20.4 Evolving Reactor Design to Improve

Heat Integration 443

20.5 Heat Integration of

Reactors – Summary 444

Reference 444

Chapter 21 Heat Integration of Distillation

Columns 445

21.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics

of Distillation 445

21.2 The Appropriate Placement of

Distillation 445

21.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve

for Heat Integration of Distillation 446

21.4 Evolving the Design of Simple

Distillation Columns to Improve

Heat Integration 447

21.5 Heat Pumping in Distillation 449

21.6 Capital Cost Considerations 449

21.7 Heat Integration Characteristics of

Distillation Sequences 450

21.8 Heat-integrated Distillation

Sequences Based on the

Optimization of a Superstructure 454

21.9 Heat Integration of Distillation

Columns – Summary 455

21.10 Exercises 456

References 457

Chapter 22 Heat Integration of Evaporators

and Dryers 459

22.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics

of Evaporators 459

22.2 Appropriate Placement of

Evaporators 459

22.3 Evolving Evaporator Design to

Improve Heat Integration 459

22.4 The Heat Integration Characteristics

of Dryers 459

22.5 Evolving Dryer Design to Improve

Heat Integration 460

22.6 Heat Integration of Evaporators and

Dryers – Summary 461

Contents xi

22.7 Exercises 462

References 463

Chapter 23 Steam Systems and Cogeneration 465

23.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment 466

23.2 Steam Boilers 468

23.3 Steam Turbines 471

23.4 Gas Turbines 477

23.5 Steam System Configuration 482

23.6 Steam and Power Balances 484

23.7 Site Composite Curves 487

23.8 Cogeneration Targets 490

23.9 Optimization of Steam Levels 493

23.10 Site Power-to-heat Ratio 496

23.11 Optimizing Steam Systems 498

23.12 Steam Costs 502

23.13 Choice of Driver 506

23.14 Steam Systems and

Cogeneration – Summary 507

23.15 Exercises 508

References 510

Chapter 24 Cooling and Refrigeration Systems 513

24.1 Cooling Systems 513

24.2 Recirculating Cooling Water

Systems 513

24.3 Targeting Minimum Cooling Water

Flowrate 516

24.4 Design of Cooling Water Networks 518

24.5 Retrofit of Cooling Water Systems 524

24.6 Refrigeration Cycles 526

24.7 Process Expanders 530

24.8 Choice of Refrigerant for

Compression Refrigeration 532

24.9 Targeting Refrigeration Power for

Compression Refrigeration 535

24.10 Heat Integration of Compression

Refrigeration Processes 539

24.11 Mixed Refrigerants for Compression

Refrigeration 542

24.12 Absorption Refrigeration 544

24.13 Indirect Refrigeration 546

24.14 Cooling Water and Refrigeration

Systems – Summary 546

24.15 Exercises 547

References 549

Chapter 25 Environmental Design for

Atmospheric Emissions 551

25.1 Atmospheric Pollution 551

25.2 Sources of Atmospheric Pollution 552

25.3 Control of Solid Particulate

Emissions to Atmosphere 553

25.4 Control of VOC Emissions to

Atmosphere 554

25.5 Control of Sulfur Emissions 565

25.6 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen

Emissions 569

25.7 Control of Combustion Emissions 573

25.8 Atmospheric Dispersion 574

25.9 Environmental Design for

Atmospheric Emissions – Summary 575

25.10 Exercises 576

References 579

Chapter 26 Water System Design 581

26.1 Aqueous Contamination 583

26.2 Primary Treatment Processes 585

26.3 Biological Treatment Processes 588

26.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes 591

26.5 Water Use 593

26.6 Targeting Maximum Water Reuse

for Single Contaminants 594

26.7 Design for Maximum Water Reuse

for Single Contaminants 596

26.8 Targeting and Design for Maximum

Water Reuse Based on Optimization

of a Superstructure 604

26.9 Process Changes for Reduced Water

Consumption 606

26.10 Targeting Minimum Wastewater

Treatment Flowrate for Single

Contaminants 607

26.11 Design for Minimum Wastewater

Treatment Flowrate for Single

Contaminants 610

26.12 Regeneration of Wastewater 613

26.13 Targeting and Design for Effluent

Treatment and Regeneration Based

on Optimization of a Superstructure 616

26.14 Data Extraction 617

26.15 Water System Design – Summary 620

26.16 Exercises 620

References 623

Chapter 27 Inherent Safety 625

27.1 Fire 625

27.2 Explosion 626

27.3 Toxic Release 627

27.4 Intensification of Hazardous

Materials 628

xii Contents

27.5 Attenuation of Hazardous Materials 630

27.6 Quantitative Measures of Inherent

Safety 631

27.7 Inherent Safety – Summary 632

27.8 Exercises 632

References 633

Chapter 28 Clean Process Technology 635

28.1 Sources of Waste from Chemical

Production 635

28.2 Clean Process Technology for

Chemical Reactors 636

28.3 Clean Process Technology for

Separation and Recycle Systems 637

28.4 Clean Process Technology for

Process Operations 642

28.5 Clean Process Technology for

Utility Systems 643

28.6 Trading off Clean Process

Technology Options 644

28.7 Life Cycle Analysis 645

28.8 Clean Process Technology –

Summary 646

28.9 Exercises 646

References 647

Chapter 29 Overall Strategy for Chemical

Process Design and Integration 649

29.1 Objectives 649

29.2 The Hierarchy 649

29.3 The Final Design 651

Appendix A Annualization of Capital Cost 653

Appendix B Gas Compression 655

B.1 Reciprocating Compressors 655

B.2 Centrifugal Compressors 658

B.3 Staged Compression 659

Appendix C Heat Transfer Coefficients and

Pressure Drop in Shell-and-tube

Heat Exchangers 661

C.1 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer

Correlations for the Tube-Side 661

C.2 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer

Correlations for the Shell-Side 662

References 666

Appendix D The Maximum Thermal

Effectiveness for 1–2

Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers 667

Appendix E Expression for the Minimum

Number of 1–2 Shell-and-tube

Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit 669

Appendix F Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger

Network Area Target 671

Appendix G Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger

Network Number of Shells Target 673

G.1 Minimum Area Target for Networks

of 1–2 Shells 674

References 677

Appendix H Algorithm for Heat Exchanger

Network Capital Cost Targets 677

Index 679